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The
unelaborated
coffee

The
definition

Within the Sapiens methodology, coffee is described as an unelaborated product when we mean the plant, a part of the plant, or the fruit prior to drying or any other intermediate elaboration.

All the processes that the fruit undergoes are considered to be pre-elaboration; these do not have any physical/chemical effect on the composition of the fruit or its relative parts (transport, separation, calibration and selection, washing, cleaning).

Coffee plant fruit Coffee plant fruit
Coffee plant fruit

The
coffee
plant

The
coffee
plant

Coffea

The Coffea is a woody evergreen with a straight trunk. It belongs to the Rubiaceae family and is generally considered to have originated in some areas that are now part of modern-day Ethiopia. The plant produces the fruits and seeds of coffee and is characterised by shiny, oval and pointed leaves that grow away from one another.

Coffea

The coffee plant is called “Coffea”, a word used for the first time by the Swedish scientist Carl Linneaus (1707–1778) in his work Systema Naturae (1735).

Coffea

The coffee plant is called “Coffea”, a word used for the first time by the Swedish scientist Carl Linneaus (1707–1778) in his work Systema Naturae (1735).

Depending on the species and variety, plants can reach a height of 8–12 metres if allowed to grow spontaneously. In contrast, cultivated plants are the result of processes aimed at increasing yield and facilitating the harvest, modifying their physical development and therefore also their height, which for pruned plants is 2–3.5 metres.

Select a part of the
plant to find out more
Coffee plant drawing 1 2

Species

The Coffea genus includes more than a hundred species indigenous to tropical Africa and to a few islands in the Indian Ocean, such as Madagascar.

Of the numerous species of coffee the plant, the most important commercially are Coffea arabica, the Coffea canephora and – to a lesser extent – the Coffea liberica, Coffea eugenioides and Coffea stenophylla.

Species definition

The word ‘species’ (from the Latin species, literally meaning ‘appearance, exterior shape’, derived from specere, ‘to look’) describes a classification category for living organisms, which comprises individuals capable of exchanging genes to reproduce fertile offspring. In biology this category is defined by: morphological criteria, phylogenetic similarity, and the presence of mechanisms for reproductive isolation from other groups.

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Coffeacanephora

Another commonly cultivated coffee-plant species, colloquially known as ‘Robusta’. This shrub can grow up to 12 metres and has shallower roots than C. arabica. The fruit is rounder and can take up to eleven months to ripen fully. The seed is elongated and usually smaller than that of C. arabica. C. canephora is cultivated in Central and West Africa, throughout South-East Asia and to a lesser degree in Brazil, where it is known as conilon.

Coffeaarabica

Described for the first time by Linneaus in 1753, this is the most renowned of the coffee plants. It differs genetically from the other species in various aspects, such as the number of double chromosomes it has compared to that of the Robusta. Most renowned coffee varieties derive from this species — such as the Typica and Bourbon — and from these, many other varieties have developed. C. arabica tends to be susceptible to pests and diseases, which is why one of the main goals of genetic improvement programmes is to create resistant plants. C. arabica is cultivated in South and Central America, Central and East Africa, India and Indonesia.

The two main species

Of these numerous coffee plant species, the most commercially relevant ones are the Coffea arabica, the Coffea canephora and – to a lesser extent – the Coffea liberica, Coffea eugenioides and Coffea stenophylla.

Described for the first time by Linneaus in 1753, this is the most renowned of the coffee plants. It differs genetically from the other species in various aspects, such as the number of double chromosomes it has compared to that of the Robusta. Most renowned coffee varieties derive from this species — such as the Typica and Bourbon — and from these, many other varieties have developed. C. arabica tends to be susceptible to pests and diseases, which is why one of the main goals of genetic improvement programmes is to create resistant plants. C. arabica is cultivated in South and Central America, Central and East Africa, India and Indonesia.

Coffea Canephora
1753
South-West Ethiopia
9 months
After the rainy season
Fall
Deep
15 - 24 °C
1.500 - 2.000 mm
Susceptible
Flattened
Date of species
description
Plant
origin
Time elapsed between flowering and ripened fruit
Flowering
Ripe fruits
Roots
Optimum temperature
for development
Annual rainfall
pattern
Coffee rust
resistance
Normal
bean shape
1895
Central Africa; Gulf of Guinea
10 - 11 months
Irregular
Remain attached
Not very deep
24 - 30 °C
1.200 - 3.000 mm
Resistant
Rounded
Coffea Arabica

Secondary species

  • Coffea congensis
  • Coffea abeokutae
  • Coffea klainii
  • Coffea stenophylla
  • Coffea oyemensis
  • Coffea carissoi
  • Coffea salvatrix
  • Coffea humilis
  • Coffea brevipes
  • Coffea togoensis
  • Coffea eugenioides
  • Coffea kivuensis
  • Coffea racemosa
  • Coffea mufindiensis
Coffea plantation Coffee plantation in Vietnam

Apart from some spontaneous plantations of C. liberica and C. canephora found in the Ivory Coast and Central Africa, most of the other coffee species are wild and grow in their natural habitat: the undergrowth of tropical forests.

Coffee plantation in Vietnam

Varieties

No one knows how many coffee varieties there are in the world: according to estimates, in Ethiopia alone there are as many as 6,000–10,000. Although there may be many coffee varieties, possibly the best known are Typica and Bourbon, which are considered to be the first to have developed.

Most of the varieties that we know of in the coffee world are actually cultivars: for example, Bourbon and Typica are varieties, but also cultivars, of the C. arabica species.

Variety definition

The term ‘variety’ (from the Latin varietas/varietatis, derived from varius, ‘various’) is used in biology to indicate a single individual or group of living organisms that is distinct, due to some unique characteristics, from the others in a species (or subspecies if present).

The importance of varieties affects all players along the coffee supply chain, including the consumers. Different varieties can have different organoleptic characteristics, which influence the taste and aroma of the final elaboration. These characteristics are, in turn, linked to the cultivation conditions and elaboration along the supply chain. For those involved in processing coffee, it is important to know that each variety corresponds to certain physical/chemical characteristics and, consequently, different types of recommended good practices.

Cultivar definition

‘Cultivar’culti [vation of] var [ieties] — means any variety of cultivated plant that represents a set of specific morphological, physiological, agronomic and commodity characteristics typical of the variety from which it originates. The cultivar is a result of genetic improvement techniques, while varieties are generated spontaneously from the reproductive process of two parent plants.

Click on a variety to
discover its features

Kent Maracaturra Jackson 2/1257 Kona Mundo Novo Miribizi Blue Mountain Pacamara Villa Sarchi Maragogype Catuai Caturra Typica SL28 Yemen Bourbon Catimor Gesha / Geisha Timor Hybrid Jember / SL795 Arabica (Ethiopian) Robusta Coffea iberica Coffea eugenoides Coffea canephora Rubiaceae

The
cultivation

The
cultivation

Cultivating coffee plants involves a series of operations focused on obtaining healthy fruits for further transformation.

The coffee plant is very sensitive and unsuited to extreme pedoclimatic (i.e. the soil and climate combination) conditions, which makes its cultivation onerous in terms of time and work. Coffee production requires a series of different requirements that depend on the conditions in which the plant is grown and the end use of the finished product.

Once fruits have been harvested from the trees, they are elaborated to obtain green coffee, which will then be subjected to further transformation in the roasting industry.

Agroenvironmental
factors

The reason one unelaborated product may be considered different from another is determined by a combination of agroenvironmental factors embedded in the processes of cultivation, from the selection of the plant variety to the harvest, transport and appropriate storage of the fruit. All of these aspects contribute to the final result.

Sprinklers on coffee plants Mountain landscape with clouds
Coffee plantations and mountain landscape

Agroecosystem

Agroecosystem is used to describe an ecosystem marked by human intervention.

Agroecology diversification strategies can lead to an increase in the functional biodiversity of the agroecosystem: a group of organisms that carry out essential ecological functions in the workings of the agroecosystem. For these reasons, systems of cultivating coffee in the shade are implemented, widely, as they represent an integrated and sustainable agricultural model.

'Terroir' scheme

Terroir

The terroir is a limited geographical area where a human community generates and accumulates a set of distinctive cultural features, knowledge and practices based on a system of interactions between biophysical and human factors. The combination of techniques involved in production reveals originality, confers typicality and leads to the recognition of elaborated products originating from this geographical area. [UNESCO]

In the case of coffee, it is therefore difficult, although not impossible, to reproduce a set of bean characteristics in another environment. The combination of factors that characterise the terroir may give it unique attributes that can sometimes be ascertained in the roasted bean or beverage.

Quality
factors: habitat

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Quality
factors: practices

The main cultivation practices that affect the quality of the plant are: the presence of shade trees, pruning techniques, soil nourishment and the type of harvesting.

Types of
cultivation

The different cultivation techniques reflect the climatic diversity of coffee-producing regions. Cultivation techniques can be classified into three macro-categories: conventional, traditional and sustainable techniques.

Each technique includes two types of cultivation: intensive and extensive.

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Intensivecultivation

Intensive cultivation is based on using modern technology for agricultural production, such as the use of synthetic chemical products: insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, nematicides and fertilisers. The product obtained from this system is called ‘conventional coffee’.

Extensivecultivation

This system of cultivation tends to avoid intensive improvement practices, with the exception of cleaning and harvesting. Moreover, it limits, where possible, the use of synthetic agrochemical products. Plantations under the canopy of trees from pre-existing natural forests and plantations designed to intercrop coffee with other canopy plants are extensive cultivation techniques.

Types of cultivation

We find two main types of cultivation: intensive and extensive. Discover the different characteristics for each cultivation by scrolling the images horizontally.

This system of cultivation tends to avoid intensive improvement practices, with the exception of cleaning and harvesting. Moreover, it limits, where possible, the use of synthetic agrochemical products. Plantations under the canopy of trees from pre-existing natural forests and plantations designed to intercrop coffee with other canopy plants are extensive cultivation techniques.

Hands and coffee beans Coffea plants Coffee harvest

Diseases

Diseases

Prevention

There are a series of diseases and pests that can put the whole coffee plant or its individual parts under stress. ‘Plant pathology’ (or phytopathology) is the branch of botany that studies plant diseases caused by other organisms and the alterations arising from a variety of agents and factors (climate, weather, soil quality, nutrients).

Disease is linked to a transitory state with the possible outcomes of recovery, death or the adaptation of the plant to a new condition of life.

Delete the pests that infest the coffee leaf by rubbing them

Title

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Delete the pests that infest the coffee leaf by rubbing them

Arabica cherries, dark Arabica cherries, withered Arabica cherries

Genetic
studies

Thanks to the genetic studies, it is possible to create new cultivars with advantageous characteristics: the resistance to pests and diseases, the increase of organoleptic qualities in the final product or the plant tolerance to stresses such as drought or frost.

Check out the genome research by Lavazza
Go to the research

Sustainability

Sustainability

Sustainable coffee is produced in accordance with environmental, social and economic standards.

The processes

Sustainable practices are based around work methods that respect the agroecosystem, the surrounding environment and the environment in general. Sustainability therefore requires ecological processes that maintain the natural fertility of the land, integrating it with the use of fertilisers and organic fertilisers.

From the beginning of the 2000s, classifications and initiatives have increased considerably to stimulate the involvement of all players in the coffee chain in the concept of sustainability.

Organic certification systems vary from country to country. Standards organisations alter their public or private nature depending on the country concerned and there is not always uniform consensus on the systems considered as organic (or ecological) outside the European context. Below are some organic certification labels from various countries.

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find out more
Massed coffee beans and farmer

From the beginning of the 2000s, classifications and initiatives have increased considerably to stimulate the involvement of all players in the coffee chain in the concept of sustainability.

Organic certification systems vary from country to country. Standards organisations alter their public or private nature depending on the country concerned and there is not always uniform consensus on the systems considered as organic (or ecological) outside the European context. Below are some organic certification labels from various countries.

Organic certification marks

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to find out more
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find out more
  • Fairtrade Certification Fairtrade Certification
  • Rainforest Alliance Certification Rainforest Alliance Certification
  • Demeter Certification Demeter Certification
  • Forest Garden Products Certification Forest Garden Products Certification
  • Smithsonian Bird Friendly Certification Smithsonian Bird Friendly Certification

The organic coffee

Organic production requires a global management system for agricultural and agrifood production, based on the interaction between the best environmental practices, the maintenance of high levels of biodiversity and the protection of natural resources.
The coffee product resulting from this system is organic coffee.

Certifications

Coffee is entitled to be labelled as organic following verification by a certification body, usually a third party, which checks compliance with environmental and processing standards. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) is the leading international organisation for organic agriculture standards.

Certifications

Coffee is entitled to be labelled as organic following verification by a certification body, usually a third party, which checks compliance with environmental and processing standards. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) is the leading international organisation for organic agriculture standards.

Certifications

Coffee is entitled to be labelled as organic following verification by a certification body, usually a third party, which checks compliance with environmental and processing standards. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) is the leading international organisation for organic agriculture standards.

75% of organic coffee comes from Latin America: Peru and Mexico are the first producers and exporters followed by Honduras, Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala Costa Rica.

75% of organic coffee comes from Latin America: Peru and Mexico are the first producers and exporters followed by Honduras, Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala Costa Rica.

Jute coffee sacks

Chapters featured

Chap. 1

What is “coffee”? The sapiens definition

Find out more

Chap. 2

Coffee as an unelaborated product: from cultivation to harvest

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The
history

The
history

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discover the history
The origins
The origins of the plant
and the first uses of its fruit
One of the more widely accepted theories is that the plant originated between 15,000 and 10,000 BC.
Coffea plant drawing

The exact location from which the genetic ancestors of Coffea arabica began to spread across the world has not yet been definitely identified.

It can be assumed that the plant in its wild form was present in the area that is today northern Ethiopia and, perhaps, in the area of Arabian Peninsula known as Yemen, where different sources say it was cultivated for the first time.

Illustration depicting the coffee harvest
Before coffee was widely drunk as a beverage, various sources refer to a use dating back to the ninth century AD in Ethiopia which involved elaborating the raw fruit by crushing and mixing it with animal fat to obtain a kind of 'energy bar' (or ball) that could in turn be boiled.
The first cultivation
in Arabia Felix
500-1000

Before the eleventh century AD the coffee plant was found only in a few Ethiopian regions and in the mountainous areas in the south-west of the Arabian Peninsula. If on the one hand the title of ‘the cradle of the plant’ should go to Ethiopia, on the other the Arabs deserve recognition for its propagation and advancing its use as a beverage.
Historical map of the Arabian Peninsula
The Ottomans and the
arrival of coffee in Europe
1500-1550

In the first half of the sixteenth century, the Ottomans conquered vast tracts of Arabia Felix and inherited the coffee tradition, leading to the development of cultivation on a larger scale. Within this period, the geography of the Yemenite territory underwent great changes and the areas dedicated to coffee crops expanded to meet a growing demand. Theories on the first forms of coffee roasting, similar to that of today’s, are dated to this period.
1615-1670

The plant was introduced to the European continent. The first experiments to acclimatise Coffea arabica to the botanical gardens of Amsterdam and the first attempts to transport and cultivate the plant in the Dutch colonies of Indonesia and Java date back to the period between 1615 and 1670. The early knowledge of the coffee plant was brought to the attention of Europeans mainly via travellers or merchants returning from the Near East and the Levant.
The Indian trading companies
and the European conquerors
1670-1700

The Dutch East India Company was the great protagonist in the early history of coffee in the West. The Dutch began to cultivate the plant more intensively in their colonies during the second half of the 1600s, in response to growing demand for the beverage in Europe.
1700-1750

The mercantile spirit of this era, the development of trading companies and the first European stock exchanges advanced the exploitation of colonial resources and the subsequent consolidation of the Dutch East India Company as a major supplier. By the mid-eighteenth century, Holland was the largest supplier of coffee in Europe, even controlling its price per weight.
1711-1724

The Dutch East India Company exchanges coffee plants with numerous European botanical gardens. Some specimens are sent to King Louis XIV in 1714, triggering France’s involvement.
1726

The first seeds of the plant arrive in Brazil, thanks to Portuguese merchants. Coffee cultivation in Brazil starts around the end of the 1720s using seeds stolen from Paris by Colonel Francisco de Melo Palheta.
1730

The English introduce coffee cultivation to Jamaica on the hills of St Andrew, before extending it to the Blue Mountains.
1753

For the first time, the Coffea arabica species is described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707– 1778), who was also the first to catalogue it in the Rubiaceae family.
The cultivation
becomes global
1750

By the mid-eighteenth century, coffee was being cultivated on five continents. In Asia, production remained in the hands of a few colonial countries, especially Holland and Britain, while other colonial powers began to move seriously towards Latin America.
Coffee workers on colonial plantations

The end of this era coincided with the abolition of slavery in the new nation states. Policies for keeping prices high opened up opportunities for cultivation in other areas: Mexico, Hawaii, Colombia, Venezuela, Puerto Rico, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Indonesia, El Salvador, Vietnam, Réunion and British Central Africa.

Coffee workers on colonial plantations
1791-1804

The Haiti Revolution saw indigenous slaves revolting against the harsh working conditions they endured on the coffee plantations under French and British rule.
1869-70

Coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix) appeared for the first time during an epidemic in South-East Asia, with devastating effects in various coffee-producing countries. It was a game changer in terms of coffee cultivation and globally shifted the focus away from varietal research towards disease resistance. This led to the introduction of various disease-resistant species, in particular C. canephora (Robusta), in many countries.
1800-1850

Coffee was consumed throughout Europe in the nineteenth century but supply was beginning to fall behind market demand. Brazil, ‘the sleeping giant’, was the perfect place to fulfil the need for expansion.
The second agricultural
revolution and the evolution
of farming techniques
New technologies had a huge influence on agricultural techniques.
It was around this time that farmers all around the world gradually learned to use fertilisers and fungicides.
Postage stamp with image of coffee bags and Coffea plant
The Western world suffered instability during the two great conflicts and in the years that followed them. Policies of self-sufficiency and the consequent consumption of coffee substitutes in much of Europe undermined the strategies of producing countries in the post-war period which led to the signing of the first international agreements.
The development of the internal combustion engine stimulated an evolution in modern and functional agricultural machinery with particular impact on the intensive cultivation sectors. As a result, the market power and weight of major producers, especially Brazil, strengthened, controlled by the large foreign trading groups.
From the Green Revolution
towards the free market
The Second World War had serious consequences even within the world of coffee cultivation.
Coffee beans, beans in a jute sack
1954

In Africa and other countries, the monopoly over coffee production and trade at the expense of local populations led to phenomenon of revolt and violence, ignited into full-blown civil wars in many countries, such as that which led to the coup d’état in Guatemala.

Following these events a series of agrarian reforms were implemented in many of the producing countries, favouring the formation worldwide of many associations, consortia and national and international bodies in general, to represent coffee producers and importers.

1940-80 / The Green Revolution

By introducing an innovative approach to agricultural production, through the use of genetically selected varieties, fertilisers and capital investment in more advanced technological equipment, most areas of the world saw a significant increase in agricultural production with the Green Revolution between 1940 and 1980.

Many nations responded to the growing demand for the beverage, especially in the United States, by embracing the promises of technology and the Green Revolution through the increase of the areas under cultivation, the introduction of new varieties with higher yields, a growing contribution from chemicals or the implementation of new agricultural practices and new technologies.

'90

The 1990s were marked by a crisis in African production, especially early in the decade. This was then compensated for by considerable growth in some of the Asian states, primarily Vietnam, followed by Indonesia.
The coffee plant in
the era of sustainability
Around the end of the 1990s and the start of the new millennium, coffee cultivation covered an area of over 10 million hectares worldwide in regions where local economies often depended on this crop.

The main event in these years was the coffee crisis of the early 2000s, caused by excessive production in countries such as Brazil and Vietnam, combined with a high yield and sky-high costs. This crisis led to a price collapse with catastrophic results for many producers.

During this time, Brazil still dominated production, although Vietnam expanded considerably, leading it to be ranked second among the producing and exporting countries.

Putting recent years into historical context is particularly difficult, as there is no perspective to enable us to evaluate which aspects of recent progress will be significant.
Chapters featured
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Chap. 1

What is “coffee”? The sapiens definition

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Chap. 2

Coffee as an unelaborated product: from cultivation to harvest

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